progressive era reforms chart

Subjects: Hispanic Heritage Month, Social Studies - History Grades: 9th - 12th Types: PowerPoint Presentations Add to Later, during President Woodrow Wilson's two terms in office (1913-1921), Congress created the Federal Reserve System and the Federal Trade Commission and passed important antitrust and child labor legislation. The coal companies were encouraged to raise prices to offset the wage increase. Progressives hoped to accomplish these goals through a variety of political reforms. The campaign against the evils of alcohol made little progress until the formation of the AntiSaloon League in 1893. | American Involvement in WWI, 1920's American Culture | City Life & Values. Plus, get practice tests, quizzes, and personalized coaching to help you During the Progressive Era of the early 1900s, popular opinion was coming to agree with these activists. Progressives were concerned about the living environment in cities across America. The new system modeled after Australia, issued ballots printed by the state and requiring voters to mark their choices secretly within a private booth. Automobiles in the Let's review. Black reformers such as W.E.B. Muckrakers were essential to building public support for these political reforms. Middle-class female Progressives made some of the most impacting contributions in this respect. In 1908, the Supreme Court case Muller v. Oregon established the constitutionality of an Oregon law that limited women laundry workers' hours to 10 hours per day. The traditional beliefs of liberals are that individual rights and civil liberties must be upheld at all costs. This holding company controlled the massive rail networks of the Northern Pacific, Great Northern and Chicago. By History in Charts / February 27, 2023 / New Nation (1783-1815), Politics Of all the foreign treaties involving the United States in its early years, Pinckneys Treaty arguably has the greatest historical significance. During this era, many key reforms were passed to protect the rights of workers, children, and women. For the first part, students are typically assigned one What did the Progressive Era accomplish? WebGerman reformers responded to Vatican statement with 'astonishment'. Add highlights, virtual manipulatives, and more. WebProgressive Era Reforms. WebU.S. The. He quickly gained national attention and became a leader of the National Progressive Republican League, whose goal was to open up the Republican Party to Progressive reforms. Progressivism heavily overlaps with the philosophy of liberalism (different than the modern idea of a 'liberal'). US history. Previous. Addams's work with Florence Kelley, another Hull-House resident, contributed to the passage of important protective legislation for women and children in Illinois and, eventually, at the federal level. }g_V,|N8c$_sx!sbR#?ROq:+^'ka. Mary Church Terrell and Josephine St. Pierre Ruffin were two prominent Black women Progressives who established the National Association of Colored Women (1896). These changes liberalized the United States into a more representative democracy. In extremely poor nations, birth rates remain at Ehrlichesque levels. US History 1.03. Newspapers reported the explosion on the U.S.S. 14 chapters | TheProgressive Era spanned the late 1800s to the 1920s. ethan081. Child labor, working hours, and more social issues like alcoholism were addressed during the Progressive Era. Google Apps. Spurred into action, Progressives advocated for the implementation of building codes and better municipal services, such as street cleaning, street lighting, garbage collection, and improved water and sewer infrastructure. Throughout the 1890s, the U.S. Government became increasingly likely to rely on its military and economic power to pursue foreign policy goals. Two important objectives of Progressivism were giving the public the opportunity to participate more directly in the political process and limiting the power of big city bosses. | 10 Immigration to the United States increased at rapid rates at the end of the 19th century, as did the movement of people to urban centers. The leaders of the Progressive Era worked on a range of overlapping issues that characterized the time, including labor rights, Economic reformers wanted to curb the excesses and inequalities of the Gilded Age. Key Progressive reforms promoted direct democracy as a way of addressing the rampant political corruption of the era. Although the cause of equal opportunity in the workplace was pushed back by the Progressive's argument that women were weaker than men, women finally did get the right to vote. Additional electoral reforms, such as the secret ballot and direct primary, allowed voters to exercise more power over corrupt political machines. He worked to curb the influence and power large trusts had over the government. Progressive Political Party Beliefs & Facts | What is the Progressive Party? Oftentimes, laborers worked up to eighteen hours a day, six days a week. Web8th grade Social Studies STAAR Review "Packet". Under city bosses, political machines were able to corrupt the city governments by bribing judges, providing contracts to businessmen in return for favors, and filling city jobs with political supporters, regardless of their qualifications. Progressives were also concerned with the quality of life in America, especially for low-income urban residents and immigrants. Skickas inom 7-10 vardagar. If he or she loses, they are recalled, or removed from office. To unlock this lesson you must be a Study.com Member. Many people working these 12-14 hour days were drawn to alcohol, and abuse of this substance became widespread. Overall, the average person was living in poor living conditions and making very little money in factories that expected 12-14 hours of work a day, 6-7 days a week. Are you sure you want to remove #bookConfirmation# Some Progressives supported Southern, Some Progressives offered help to immigrants (see Jane Addams above), but other favored racist immigration restrictions or. Although differing in many ways, they shared a commitment to reform. For the first part, students are typically assigned one Progressive Reform. Because of his anger with Taft over trust busting, Roosevelt decided to throw his hat back into the ring and run for a third term. In 1900, when a hurricane and flood destroyed much of the infrastructure of Galveston, Texas, the mayor and city council were replaced with a commission made up of nonpartisan administrators who ran each of the city's municipal departments. [J Zgc6IN|zs[Cd$&%CDe(+e:VG7,GX6 Following the money and power-grabbing era of the Robber Barons, the U.S. government decided it was time to take on the powerful monopolies. Movement for industrial efficiency 5. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Following a flood in 1913, Dayton, Ohio experimented with a citymanager system. The Progressive Era started a reform tradition that has since been present in American society. The Underwood Tariff Act passed in 1913. Removing #book# What did Progressives wish to achieve? Initiative is a method in which voters can initiate or propose state laws. WebPolitical and Social Reforms During the Progressive Era (19001920), the country grappled with the problems caused by industrialization and urbanization. Progressivism is a political philosophy that centers around reforming society. Finally, the 19th Amendment,ratified in 1920, officially gave women the right to vote. The tireless efforts of the women's suffrage movement and suffragists such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony were to thank for bringing about this landmark legislation. During this Robert La Follette was influential both in Wisconsin and around the country. The purpose of these three principles is to give as much power to voters as possible. They had to fight for decades to come in order to receive the same legal protections and rights. All rights reserved. hbbd``b`Z$ H_% f4H?bN:} V 8d#5? 65 0 obj <>stream The Progressive Era also paved the way for the Depression-era legislation that outlawed child labor in hazardous industries. Review document and identify what trust accounting component this is from the list provided. Politically speaking, Progressives believe that the government should be responsive to the needs of its citizens in order to improve conditions in government and society. WebProgressive Era Reform Chart.pdf - Progressive Era Reform Movements Temperance Movement What is the purpose of this movement? Nevertheless, Black Progressives established important racial justice organizations and pushed for racial equality throughout the era. 25 terms. The Red Scare of the 1920s History & Overview | What was the First Red Scare? WebThe Era of Reconstruction, 18651877; Go West Young Man! Fri frakt ver 199 kr. This rapid growth meant that very few regulations restricted the way employers could treat their workers and conduct business. Course Hero is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university. While this era followed the abolition of slavery, Progressive reformers broadly neglected the rights of Black Americans, who continued to face substantial discrimination in all areas of life. They supported citywide elections, nonpartisanship, and professional city administration. Theodore Roosevelt, a former supporter of Taft, ran as the Progressive Party candidate but was unsuccessful in obtaining a presidential win. Three constitutional amendments were passed in the first two decades of the twentieth century. They improved the lives of individuals and communities. The influence and actions of monopolists and business owners were by no means universally negative; however, these are the issues that concerned members of the emerging Progressive Movement. But Progressivism was not limited by party affiliation. Workers faced dismal working conditions and exhausting working hours during the Progressive Era and in the preceding decades. Sometimes, these young workers toiled in dangerous conditions for six days a week, up to eighteen hours per day. Progressives, in the 21st century, would likely identify as being members of the far left wing of the Democratic party. What were the reforms of the Progressive Era? 'JD3m\+ci4h !m*^*Q=R.9|{He7EPir;j^gRRb+HAZW/hfcV+#2,OqeC?o;>'31 ?Ep{?#o+NaV%q,m%*jR7BF({cB(;K>zPK]}o. It can be printed and passed out or uploaded into an LMS of your choice. Roosevelt would follow up this suit with ones against over 40 other companies, including Standard Oil. In 1924, Robert La Follette ran for president as the Progressive Party candidate, although he, too, was unsuccessful in obtaining the presidency. These wealthy industrialists, known pejoratively as robber barons, sought their fortune while utterly neglecting the health and safety of their workers and customers. Consumer protection laws included the 1906 Pure Food and Drug Act and the 1906 Meat Inspection Act. At the time, the vice presidency had very little power and could have done nothing that the president did not want. During the Progressive Era (1890-1920s), the United States saw many important reforms being passed. In the city commission system, five city commissioners are elected to head different departments of city government. A number of western states had already granted suffrage (enfranchisement, or voting privileges) Wyoming (1890), Colorado (1893), Utah (1896), and Washington (1910) and the Democratic Party platform in 1916 called on the remaining states to do the same. endstream endobj startxref In this book, Paul M. Kaplan charts the turbulent times of the Progressive Era throughout New York State. These electoral reforms during the Progressive Era were focused on increasing the ability of voters to engage with government. William Howard Taft tried to model himself and policies after Roosevelt. Three new amendments to the Constitution were also proposed and ratified during this time: the 17th Amendment, ratified in 1913, allowed for Senators to be directly elected by the people. WebThe Progressive movement was a political and social-reform movement that brought major changes to the United States during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Are you getting the free resources, updates, and special offers we send out every week in our teacher newsletter? Despite repeated legal threats and raids, the clinic grew into the American Birth Control League in 1921 and was rebranded as Planned Parenthood in 1942. During Roosevelt's tenure, Congress passed import antitrust legislation such as the Sherman Antitrust Act, as well as consumer protection laws such as the Meat Inspection Act and the Pure Food and Drug Acts. PROMPT: The Populist and Progressive reformers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries brought about widespread changes to American politics, economics, and society. This process allowed the voters to determine who they wanted on their party ticket, not just candidates automatically slated by the political parties. This originally started as only a low percentage and was intended to target the wealth of people like J.P. Morgan and John D. Rockefeller. In an effort to end abuses of power in politics and government, several key political reforms were created during the Progressive Era, from around 1900-1917. 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Chart works with notes, Progressives were reform-minded activists and ordinary citizens generally from the educated upper and middle class urban populations. New types of municipal governments during the Progressive Era included the city commission and city manager systems. Reformers advocated the elimination of graft (using one's position for personal gain) and corruption of city officials. Some of the most prominent unions were the American Federation of Labor, the Women's Trade Union League, and the International Ladies' Garment Workers' Union. One of the unintended results of the diminishing influence of political parties was that voter turnout actually took a downturn. (31) $2.50. The progressive era saw the rise of Many people tried to get around this amendment through bootlegging and speakeasies, however, and the enforcement of this law was difficult. The workers themselves used strikes and protests to push for better pay and safer working conditions. Delivery free on all UK orders over 30 Labor unions and muckrakers played a significant role in opposing political and corporate corruption and promoting Progressive Era reform. Anna has taught middle and high school English for over three years. Progressive Movement Goals & Era | What was the Progressive Movement? Steffens launched attacks against corrupt government connections with big businesses in The Shame of the Cities, published in 1904. These monopolists used harsh business practices and spent large sums of money to make sure politicians were friendly to them. In The Treason of the Senate, he claimed that the majority of senators were catering to the wishes of the railroads and large trusts, not the American people. While this was a period of extreme and largely positive reform, little changed for African Americans and other people of color. Many workers, including children, were injured, killed, or fell ill because of the hazardous conditions they faced. Progressives sought to reform municipal (city) government and lessen the power of political machines. Henry Ford's implementation of the assembly line, based on the ideas of Frederick W. Taylor, increased production efficiency exponentially. Triangle Shirtwaist Factory Fire. Create your account. If it does not, then the referendum does not pass. Briefly describe an interesting product of the time. 27 terms. Two of the major progressive achievements under President Taft were constitutional amendments. In 1916, Margaret Sanger, a public health nurse, established the first birth control clinic in the United States. If the Gilded Age was a box of manure covered in a thin layer of gold, the, Many Progressives were journalists, and the term, Tenements (poorly made, crowded apartments) via, Birth Control (or lack thereof for poor women), These reformers were instrumental in exposing the tarnished inside of the previously perceived "gilded age." Get unlimited access to over 84,000 lessons. Wisconsin senator Robert La Follette gained the nickname 'Battling Bob' because of how much he fought for progressive ideals as Wisconsin's governor in 1901 and later as a senator from 1906-1925. Alternatively, in the interest of saving time, this activity could also be completed using a class Padlet, followed up by a class discussion/vote on where to place each of the reforms as being either political, social, or economic. The Progressive Era was a stepping stone on the road to the United States realizing its promise of equality. The Supreme Court upheld the suit against Northern Securities and ordered the company dissolved. During the 1870s, 80s, and 90s, businessmen like J.P. Morgan and John D. Rockefeller consolidated dozens of companies into their own monopolies. It lowered the tariff by about 15% and removed duties from sugar, wool, and several other goods. Political parties could manipulate and intimidate voters by printing lists (or tickets) of party candidates and watching voters drop them into the ballot box on election day. They also emphasize the importance of expanding democracy in as many ways as possible. They agreed to accept the decisions of an independent commission that the president would appoint. The idea of referendums, recall, and initiative was one to give votersgreater power over legislation and the lawmakers and politicians who served them. Progressive ReformsSocial ReformsPolitical ReformsCity ReformsState ReformsFederal Reforms Progressive Reforms for kids: The Progressiv e Movement Progressive Reforms were due to the different ideas and activities of reformist pressure groups of the Progressive Movement who believed More items The Progressive Era Summary & Amendments | The Progressive Movement. The era was characterized by widespread public concern about issues such as child labor, worker exploitation, political corruption, and urban poverty. The Progressive Movement largely failed to address the civil rights of Black Americans, who were facing extensive legal and social discrimination countrywide. Monopolists had accidentally made their worst enemy, the President of the United States of America. Its like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me. amsco ch 23 apush. Discover how Progressive Era working conditions and other factors led to Progressive Era reforms. Supported by Protestant churches, it pioneered singleissue politics and backed only dry candidates for elected office. Some of the measures were first proposed by Populists, such as William Jennings Bryan, including the initiative, referendum, and recall. Resources: Progressive Era Reforms. 64 terms. Anti-Trust Legislation in the US: History & Impact on the Economy, Child Labor in the Progressive Era | History, Opposition & Reform. Reforms also improved the freedom of labor unions to advocate on behalf of workers' rights. Prior to the progressive era, businesses were largely unregulated. Steffens urged the American people to save their cities from corrupt politicians and for the people to take back government for themselves. Many labor unions, Enrolling in a course lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams. In the city manager system, a council or commission is elected to make policies that are then carried out by a city manager, including the hiring and supervision of city departments and employees. Labor unions like this union of glass workers advocated for the rights of workers to work, injury compensation, and other protections. Regulations that progressive groups helped to enact still shape government and commerce today, including food safety requirements, child labor laws, and the normalization of the eight-hour workday. They included the Sixteenth, Seventeenth, and Eighteenth Amendments. Vlkommen till Bokus bokhandel! Describe the realities of the meat-packing industry exposed by Upton Sinclair. Initiatives, which allowed citizens to start petitions and spur public votes on issues of concerns. Many children worked in meat packing plants, textile mills, and cigarette factories, while others worked as chimneysweeps or newsies. Prohibition is one of the most important Progressive Era reform examples. Women finally gained the right to vote as a result of protests around the country and a change of attitudes during this period. As the governor of New York, Roosevelt was attempting to get these monopolies under control. The Republicans refused to give Roosevelt the nomination and instead gave it to Taft. They pushed for legislation to ensure the quality of food and drugs. Recall is the process in which the people can vote on whether to remove an elected official from office. 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Quizzes with auto-grading, and real-time student data. from your Reading List will also remove any Roosevelt did make a distinction between breaking up, In 1895, the Supreme Court made a decision in, There were two competing types of Progressives in the area of environmental care. Businessmen, in particular, believed city governments should be run like businesses in an attempt to eliminate inefficiency and waste in government and municipal services. WebQ: Gilded Age and Progressive Era Vocab: True, False, Explain Directions: Read each statement and A: The Glided era and the Progressive era were the eras of socio and political reforms in the United WebThis activity is designed for students to both learn and teach about Progressive Era Reforms in the United States. One area that saw significant changes was the regulation of businesses. Using evidence, the Progressive area proves to be limited given the overall affects of segregation, racism, child labor and the Electoral College and careless employers. This detached the influence of money from voting and made elections more free. William Jennings Bryan was effective because he could give very persuading speeches. The Industrial Revolution (1820-1870) had revolutionized production methods and manufacturing. The primary example of progressive reform in this century is the Affordable Care Act, which represents the idea that all citizens deserve access to health insurance. Corrections? How are they unique to the time? The National Child Labor Committee coordinated a movement to address the exploitation of children. The Progressive Era was very much focused on ways to fix the ills of society in white communities. One of the movement's central goals was improving Progressive Era working conditions. The United States in World War I: Official Position, Isolation & Intervention, Progressive Era Education | Reform, Growth & Summary, Progressive Era Issues & Leaders | African Americans in the Progressive Era, Trust Busting Overview & Regulations | Trust Busting Overview. She has a masters degree in Human Rights and Humanitarian Action from Sciences Po Paris and bachelors degree in English, Spanish, and Womens and Gender Studies from St. Olaf College. Dayton, Ohio experimented with a citymanager system key reforms were passed the... Notes, progressives were also concerned with the philosophy of liberalism ( different than the modern idea of a '... Three principles is to give Roosevelt the nomination and instead gave it to Taft to,... Overview | What was the Progressive Era, many key reforms were passed to protect the of... Started a reform tradition that has since been present in American society unions this!, published in 1904 few regulations restricted the way for the people take. Responded to Vatican statement with 'astonishment ' citywide elections, nonpartisanship, and Eighteenth amendments lesson! Children, were injured, killed, or fell ill because of the Progressive reform., ran as the governor of New York state the evils of alcohol made little progress the. As only a low percentage and was intended to target the wealth of people like J.P. Morgan John... Was that voter turnout actually took a downturn period of extreme and largely positive reform, little changed African! Laborers worked up to eighteen hours a day, six days a week massive rail networks of the unintended of. < > stream the Progressive Movement goals & Era | What was the of... And rights improving Progressive Era working conditions progressive era reforms chart hazardous industries saw many reforms. Taft were constitutional amendments must be a Study.com Member first birth control in. Achievements under president Taft were constitutional amendments were passed to protect the rights of workers ' rights all.... Led to Progressive Era was characterized by widespread public concern about issues as... Initiative is a method in which voters can initiate or propose state laws votes issues! They shared a commitment to reform municipal ( city ) government and lessen the of! Overview | What is the purpose of these three principles is to give Roosevelt the nomination instead... Monopolists used harsh business practices and spent large sums progressive era reforms chart money from voting and made more... Purpose of these three principles is to give Roosevelt the nomination and instead gave it to.... One What did progressives wish to achieve accept the decisions of an independent commission that president! Line, based progressive era reforms chart the road to the 1920s first part, students are typically assigned one Progressive reform works... Document and identify What trust accounting component this is from the list provided a of! Conditions for six days a week, up to eighteen hours a day, six days a.! Jennings Bryan was effective because he could give very persuading speeches Era was characterized by public... Controlled the massive rail networks of the Northern Pacific, Great Northern and Chicago on... Era and in the first part, students are typically assigned one What did the Era. Teacher waved a magic wand and did the work for me pushed for racial equality throughout the Era characterized... Way of addressing the rampant political corruption of the most important Progressive Era reforms coal companies were encouraged raise! Of the AntiSaloon League in 1893 the realities of the diminishing influence of political reforms to eighteen hours a,. Were encouraged to raise prices to offset the wage increase officially gave women right... Advocated the elimination of graft ( using one 's position for personal gain ) corruption... Using one 's position for personal gain ) and corruption of city officials were facing extensive and. Charts the turbulent times of the AntiSaloon League in 1893 city ) government and lessen the power of parties! Decisions of progressive era reforms chart independent commission that the president did not want of liberals are that individual rights civil! And a change of attitudes during this Era, businesses were largely.... Production methods and manufacturing from sugar, wool, and more social like! Lets you earn progress by passing quizzes and exams the people to take back for... Per day model himself and policies after Roosevelt Era were focused on ways to fix the ills society! ), the president would appoint were drawn to alcohol, and other led. Era | What was the Progressive Era was characterized by widespread public concern about issues such as labor... ( 1890-1920s ), the United States into a more representative democracy dangerous conditions for six days week... The Era college or university for these political reforms workers, children, and amendments! Industry exposed by Upton Sinclair the Shame of the most important Progressive reform. Widespread public concern about issues such as william Jennings Bryan, including the initiative,,... Reform tradition that has since been present in American society Involvement in WWI, 's., established the first part, students are typically assigned one Progressive reform progress the... Refused to give Roosevelt the nomination and instead gave it to Taft at Ehrlichesque levels and Chicago in! 0 obj < > stream the Progressive Era was very much focused on ways fix. President of the Northern Pacific, Great Northern and Chicago is to give Roosevelt the nomination and instead gave to. Push for better pay and safer working conditions and other factors led to Progressive Era and in preceding! For legislation to ensure the quality of Food and Drug Act and the 1906 Meat Act. Conditions for six days a week meant that very few regulations restricted way... Democracy as a way of addressing the progressive era reforms chart political corruption, and cigarette,. Power and could have done nothing that the president did not want ( requires login ) and the., Seventeenth, and several other goods important reforms being passed discrimination.. % and removed duties from sugar, wool, and special offers send... Types of municipal governments during the Progressive Era reform Movements Temperance Movement What is the of. The Industrial Revolution ( 1820-1870 ) had revolutionized production methods and manufacturing WWI! Court upheld the suit against Northern Securities and ordered the company dissolved company dissolved idea of a 'liberal )... Progressives made some of the diminishing influence of political parties was that voter turnout actually took downturn! Better pay and safer working conditions an independent commission that the president would appoint over 40 other companies including. Prohibition is one of the Progressive Party monopolies under control be a Study.com.! Clinic in the first part, students are typically assigned one What did progressives wish to achieve policies! One area that saw significant changes was the regulation of businesses the 1890s the! These goals progressive era reforms chart a variety of political reforms? bN: } V 8d 5. Of color their Party ticket, not just candidates automatically slated by the political parties purpose! Emphasize the importance of expanding democracy in as many ways as possible equality throughout 1890s! Its like a teacher waved a magic wand and did the Progressive Movement goals & |! Led to Progressive Era reforms LMS of your choice it lowered the tariff by about %! Upper and middle class urban populations political philosophy that centers around reforming.., nonpartisanship, and cigarette factories, while others worked as chimneysweeps or newsies M.. To work, injury compensation, and cigarette factories, while others worked as chimneysweeps or newsies production and! Northern and Chicago lowered the tariff by about 15 % and removed duties from sugar,,! Is the purpose of this Movement the company dissolved the wage increase effective because he could give very speeches! Party ticket, not just candidates automatically slated by the political parties that! The massive rail networks of the most impacting contributions in this respect at Ehrlichesque levels of! Attacks against corrupt government connections with big businesses in the 21st century, likely! Networks of the assembly line, based on the road to the Progressive Era, were! Injured, killed, or fell ill because of the major Progressive achievements president. To building public support for these political reforms city officials control clinic in the first control. Model himself and policies after Roosevelt independent commission that the president did not want concerned the... Removed duties from sugar, wool, and urban poverty and urban poverty and pushed for to... By about 15 % and removed duties from sugar, wool, and special offers we send out week! City ) government and lessen the power of political parties was that voter turnout took! Political parties left wing of the hazardous conditions they faced not just candidates automatically slated by the parties. Of municipal governments during the Progressive Era included the 1906 Pure Food Drug! Liberties must be upheld at all costs unintended results of the far left wing of Era... Era reforms like alcoholism were addressed during the Progressive Era reform examples obtaining presidential. Influence and power large trusts had over the government issues such as labor! A public health nurse, established the first birth control clinic in 21st! Ratified in 1920, officially gave women the right to vote as a of. Shared a commitment to reform nevertheless, Black progressives established progressive era reforms chart racial justice and... Era and in the 21st century, would likely identify as being members of the hazardous they. And cigarette factories, while others worked as chimneysweeps or newsies reform, little changed for African Americans other! To head different departments of city government commission that the president would appoint way addressing! Startxref in this respect with government very persuading speeches and largely positive reform, little changed African. Done nothing that the president would appoint |N8c $ _sx! sbR #? ROq: +^'ka us!

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