agrochemical use and misuse
agrochemical use and misuse
Education years were hypothesized to be positively related to maize output. Conversely, Achem et al. 0000007878 00000 n Experience in agrochemicals use and farm size have a negative significant effect on farmers level of awareness of health implications of agrochemicals use. Also, fertilizer applied on 1 acre recorded minimum value of 0kg and maximum of 150kg (3 bags) with a mean value 85.6kg. Penalties are determined through a point system defined in the Illinois Pesticide Act. The average awareness score of farmers interviewed was 58% indicating that maize farmers in the study area are moderately aware of agrochemical usage and its health implications. Carboxin, oxycarboxin antibiotics like Aureofungin, organic mercurials, lime sulphur, dodine, and other antifungal agents eliminate harmful fungus from an infection court. Then, read the label. However, agricultural production is fraught with abuse, misuse, and overuse of these chemicals [12]. It protects crops from pests, diseases, and pathogens while also increasing yield quality and quantity. The municipality is located within longitudes 15W and 139W and latitudes 79N and 736N. Awareness of health implications of agrochemical use increases output by 309kg (3.09 bags) per acre. Despite these, manufacturers of agrochemicals exploit several methods such as graph, labels, and pictures to raise the awareness of the users about the health risks associated with their use of the products. Various types of samples, such as plants, water or soil, may be collected for analysis. J. R. Fianko, A. Donkor, S. T. Lowor, and P. O. Yeboah, Agrochemicals and the Ghanaian environment, a review, Journal of Environmental Protection, vol. Apply the product at the rate specified on the label. 0000003560 00000 n The interpretations of indices of level of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use are indicated in Table 1. [4] Due to the adaptation of pests to these chemicals, more and new agrochemicals were being used, causing side effects in the environment. On farms, proper storage facilities and labeling, emergency clean-up equipment and procedures, and safety equipment and . Proper use of pesticides is important since pesticide-drift can harm susceptible vegetation, wildlife and water supplies. However, needful actions such as Government policy on educational campaign/programs must be intensified. Agrochemicals can help a farmer achieve his or her goal of growing specific plant species while also eradicating weeds and other detrimental elements that deplete farming resources and reduce the quality of produce. . Healthy, environmentally friendly lawn and landscape practices can reduce erosion, stream sedimentation, flooding, and runoff of pollutants into local waterways as well as risk of pesticide exposure to children, adults, pets, and wildlife. Long-term solutions however, are dependent on the development of policies and infrastructure that support non-chemical pest management, alternatives to pesticides, and the identification of organic plantain markets. The multivariate linear regression results showed that awareness levels of health implications of agrochemical use increase maize output. Finally, when the insured amount is higher or the relative deductible is lower, farmers are more likely to reduce fertiliser and pesticide usage and adopt GAT. 0000004071 00000 n Privacy Policy It is therefore recommended that interventions aimed at increasing farmers awareness levels of health implications of agrochemicals use should focus on educating farmers through interactive radio discussion and training sessions on the field and incorporate safety use of agrochemical in our educational curriculum. Seventeen active ingredients: Paraquat dichloride, Glyphosate, Permethrin + pyriproxyfen, Dimethylamine salt, Cypermethrin, Chlorpyrifos . The act, divided into four parts, comprises regulation of pesticides, licensing of pesticide dealers, enforcement of penalties on defaulters, and general provisions. Almost all pesticides have the potential to have a significant influence on ecosystems; many are toxic to humans and/or animals, and some concentrate as they rise up the food chain. Fungicides are toxic compounds or insecticides that kill or prevent fungus and their spores from growing. Farmers who are aware of health implications of agrochemical use will adhere to the recommended practices and application rate and this has a great implication for the crops yield and health of the farmers. . 2, June 2016, published, Farmer: Agrochemical Use and Associated Risk Factors in Fadan Daji District of Kaura LGA, Kaduna State, Nigeria, Application of nanotechnology in agriculture and food science, 16 Agricultural Impacts in the Northern Temperate Zone, Securing future food: towards ecological food provision UK Food Group Briefing, Effect of Agrochemical Use on the Drinking Water Quality of Agogo, a Tomato Growing Community in Ashanti Akim, Ghana, Farmers perceptual analysis of the quality and accessibility of agrochemicals in Kaduna and Ondo States of Nigeria: Implications for Policy, Alternatives to legislative policies on pesticides in Cambodia, Alternatives to the lack of successful policies on pesticides in Cambodia, Socio-economic Determinants of Adoption of Recommended Agrochemical Practices among Crop Farmers in Kaduna and Ondo States, Nigeria, Adoption of Recommended Agrochemical Practices among Crop Farmers in Kaduna and Ondo States of Nigeria, Status, Gaps and Way Forward in Addressing the Chronic Kidney Disease Unidentified (CKDu) in Sri Lanka, Nanotechnology in agri-food production: an overview, A Review of Research into the Environmental and SocioEconomic Impacts of Contemporary and Alternative Arable Cropping Systems, DETERMINANTS IN KNOWLEDGE ABOUT RECOMMENDED PACKAGE OF PRACTICES OF ROOT & TUBER CROPS, EFFECTS OF PESTICIDES ON CAMBODIA FARMING AND FOOD PRODUCTION: ALTERNATIVES TO REGULATORY POLICIES 1, Comparative investigation of climate change potential of agro-chemical inputs used by efficient and inefficient soybean farmers of Niger State in Nigeria vis--vis pathways of minimizing its impacts on agro-ecology, Awareness and practices of Paddy Farmers towards Sustainable Agricultural Technologies: The Case of Usangu Plains in Mbarali district, Tanzania, WB Agripollution Report Philippines (Executive Summary). Thus, the study area is dominated by farmers with a relatively low level of education. 2, no. W. H. Greene, Econometric Analysis, Prentice Hall, New Jersey, NJ, USA, 7th edition, 2008. Consult a specialist for recommendations on which pesticides or other agrochemical products are most suited to your insect situation. Sorry, preview is currently unavailable. Farmers are highly motivated to using these strategies due to the emphasis placed by most agricultural development policies in Ghana which suggest the use of external inputs such as machinery and agrochemicals as the panacea to increasing food productivity. To estimate the effect of awareness level on farm output, multiple linear regression model was used where awareness level is an additional explanatory variable measuring the effect on output. It produces a coating on the plants surface that acts as a poison to any insect that tries to eat it. It looks like your browser does not have JavaScript enabled. Make sure you have the correct pesticides for the job if youre planning to use one to manage weeds. The results showed that education, the number of children in school, and ownership of TV/radio positively influence farmers level of awareness of health implications of agrochemicals use. Please turn on JavaScript and try again. The investigator may also interview applicators in the area, examine pesticide records and collect weather data in an attempt to determine the nature and cause of the damage. This breakthrough was anchored on science and technology. Insecticides are chemicals that are used to kill, damage, repel, or control insects. This implies that smallholder maize farmers are more aware of agrochemicals use risk than large-scale farmers holding other factors constant. Educational attainment decreases the probability of a farmer being in the low level of awareness by 0.028 and increases the probability of being in moderate and high level of awareness by 0.021 and 0.007, respectively. Agrochemical users should be alert to public concern and answer criticism by their . 4, pp. Excessive utilization of these chemicals generate residues that cause nutrients imbalance and reduction of the yielding capacity of crops. Take time to observe the surrounding area. Understanding the problem of pesticide misuse in the Third World requires analysis of both political-economic forces and local-level variations in peasant behavior and attitudes. Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Agriculture in Ghana, Statistics, Research and Information Directorate (SRID), Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Accra, 2014. They can be used to control rusts, mould, mildews, oomycetes, blights, and other fungi that harm plants. 84o\X'p4_. Descriptive statistics such as percentages were used while ordered logit model was used to identify factors influencing farmers awareness level of health implications of agrochemical use. Marginal effects of ordered logit model and the individual awareness levels. Career, Herbicides 9C>|:FX[w>k,WZ1OSg:FY z#Fzd)5JKB)pX#-+fqQsT&J5[}D}"F(bXp.WP-UOd z OYHl$OQvGX{J[Q{}W{ F:TKdpSTzD'Ak(=:>J(x:MSOjV#mmx?||&HP[RT3~h6Ch+ 8 Agricultural Impact Mitigation Agreements, Safety and Health Assistance for Ag Employers, Commercial Pesticide Applicator/ Operator Training and Testing, Private Pesticide Applicator Training and Testing, Licensed Pesticide Operators /Applicators /Dealers Search, Aerial Pesticide Application Questions and Answers, Agrichemical Facilities Containment Program, Containment Requirements for "On-farm" Agrichemicals. Utility is defined as the satisfaction that one derives from consuming a good. Output is a function of conventional inputs such as labor, capital, fertilizer, and pesticides. Your email address will not be published. Plants may become spotted, curled or even die when exposed to a pesticide, often because wind has carried it from its intended area. In Ghana, most rural folks depend on lakes, streams, and rivers as sources of drinking water. Effects on soil: Pesticides are an important management tool in agricultural production. Agrochemicals are a broad term that refers to a variety of chemicals designed to protect plants and crops. The Adjusted R-squared of 0.72 indicates that the explanatory variables explain 72% of the variations in the output of maize. The municipality was randomly selected among the many maize producing districts or municipality in the region. In Ghana, the agricultural sector is principally dominated by small-scale farmers. The effects of pesticides on human health are compounded since some farmers allow children to do the spraying without personal protective gears. Pesticide misuse is often easy to spot. This has led to increasing the use of synthetic agrochemicals instead of the biological, cultural, and mechanical method for boosting production, controlling pest, weed, and disease [3]. Agriculture is one of the principal sectors of Ghanas economy. As well as to change or manage undesirable vegetation. According to Lichtenberg and Zilberman [17], the use of pesticides is considered protective inputs but not productive inputs. 80]kms>.tIk6O)@3 It could also be as a result of resource constraint which hinders the provision of right quantities of agrochemicals and the accompanied protective gears. agrochemical: [noun] an agricultural chemical (such as an herbicide or an insecticide). Results indicate that the quantity of agrochemicals applied in plantain cultivation is less than that applied in export banana, but the absence of appropriate agrochemical application practices in plantain cultivation may pose serious risks to human and environmental health. In 2013, 1,764,477MT of maize was produced and out of this value, Ashanti Region which was the third largest production region recorded a value of 201,786MT [2]. The use of Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) remains a thing of choice to these maize farmers. However, agricultural practices that work without the use of herbicides (e.g., organic farming . agrochemicals safely.The major risk factors related to agrochemical exposure resulted from the misuse of pesticides, including erroneous beliefs of farmers regarding pesticide toxicity, the use of faulty spraying equipment, the lack of proper maintenance of spraying equipment, or the lack of protective gear and appropriate clothing. In Ghana agriculture and public health sectors remain the major contributors of pollutants into the environment. 12, no. Follow all requirements on pesticide product labels. One hundred and fifty-four (154) maize farmers were randomly sampled from the municipality. Farmers and homeowners must be licensed to apply restricted pesticides. A 1 percent increase in farm size was found to be associated with a 0.3 percent and 0.5 percent decrease in fertilizer and pesticide use per hectare, respectively. Quality here refers to the quantity of maize devoid of chaff and other pests infected grains. Agrochemicals were introduced to protect crops from pests and enhance crop yields. The country has for the past few years experienced continuous decline in GDP contribution from the sector, but it still remains the foundation on which the countrys economy rests. the hazardous effects of the chemicals and also Government through extension agents should enlighten farmers on the misuse of agrochemical in order to have general acceptability of the farm products at large. For example, systemic toxins and Paris green (copper acetoarsenate). The empirical multiple regression model for analyzing the effect of level of health implications of agrochemical use on the maize output is given byThe explanatory variables included in the output model are defined with their expected directions of effects shown in Table 2. 5, article no. Pesticides, insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, fertilizers, soil conditioners, algaecides, and other agrochemicals are examples. This means that if a farmer moves from low to moderate levels of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use, his or her maize output will increase by 309kg (3.09 bags) per acre. Never transport pesticides in a closed passenger vehicle or in a . Complaints filed after that will be kept on record, but no administrative action can be taken. The misuse of agrochemicals in coffee production is a reality. Agrochemicals include fertilizers, liming and acidifying agents (which are designed to change the pH), soil conditioners, pesticides, and chemicals used in the raising of livestock such as antibiotics and hormones. Agrochemicals are a broad term that refers to a variety of chemicals designed to protect plants and crops. Proper pesticide use starts before application. M. Parhi, Diffusion of New Technology in Indian Auto Component Industry: An Examination of the Determinants of Adoption, Discussion Paper Series No. If you believe your property has been damaged by pesticide misuse, call the IDOA's Bureau of Environmental Programs at 1-800-641-3934 (voice and TDD) or 217-785-2427 for acomplaint form. B. Dinham, Growing vegetables in developing countries for local urban populations and export markets: problems confronting small-scale producers, Pest Management Science, vol. 2010).High yield rice varieties grown in major rice production . About 68% of the farmers stated that they do not eat, drink, or smoke during chemical application and 32.5% admitted that they do. Moreover, our results reveal that compared with small-scale farmers, crop insurance has a stronger effect on large-scale farmers' use of agrochemicals. Meanwhile, most rural folks depend on lakes, streams, and rivers as sources of drinking water thereby linking chemical contamination exposures closely with toxicity. D. Awunyo-Vitor, J. Bakan, and S. Coffie, Estimation of farm level technical efficiency of small-scale Cowpea production in Ghana, American-Eurasian Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Science, vol. Transportation. Antibiotic resistance is one of the world's most urgent health problems. We randomly selected four communities from the list of maize producing communities within the municipality. 1, 2009. About Us Fungicides endstream endobj 116 0 obj<> endobj 118 0 obj<> endobj 119 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>> endobj 120 0 obj<> endobj 121 0 obj<> endobj 122 0 obj<> endobj 123 0 obj<> endobj 124 0 obj<> endobj 125 0 obj<> endobj 126 0 obj<> endobj 127 0 obj<>stream The result shows that an increase in formal education by one year leads to an increase in maize output by 433kg (4.33 bags). Examples include Zineb and Sulphur. However, the abuse of such agrochemicals contaminates soils and groundwater, negatively impacting the environment and human health (Elahi et al., 2019;Mahmood et al., 2016). The large-scale use of agrochemicals has raised environmental and human health concerns. Pesticide accidents or fires can result in water, soil, and air contamination; damage to plants . The sector contributed 22.0% against 28.6% from the industrial sector and 49.5% from the services sector to the GDP of the country [1]. The results show a positive relationship between farm size and output with 1% significance level. Africa's population, currently estimated at 1.3 billion people, is expected to double by 2050 (1), placing enormous pressure on African food production systems that are plagued by low productivity. 2, pp. It also boosts crop yields, improves soil fertility and crop quality, and protects their investment in their crop. 90, no. Government-issued permits for purchase and use of approved agrichemicals may be required. Agrochemicals are usually delivered to a store by the supplier or transported by the user. This means that there are certain socioeconomic and demographic factors that influence the farmers awareness level of health implications of agrochemical use. Significant penalties can result from misuse, including improper storage resulting in spillage. Keep in mind that having more isnt necessarily a good thing. M. Glover-Amengor and F. M. Tetteh, Effect of pesticide application rate on yield of vegetables and soil microbial communities, West African Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. The result implies that farmers who have access to television and radio are more aware than those without radio, ceteris paribus. The results proved to be positively significant at 1%. Disclaimer, Office: B-300 Saraswati Vihar, Pitampura, New Delhi 110034, Copyright 2021 | Geeken Chemicals India Limited | All Rights Reserved. Background. The projects aimed at providing alternatives to commercial agrochemicals which are harmful to human, animal and environmental health. Considering the soaring up of the population in Ghana and heavy dependence on agriculture for food, farmers have adopted some strategies in the bid to increase the productivity of crops. 0000001265 00000 n It is important to know whether farmers who are aware of health implications of agrochemical use and adhere to the safety standards are able to obtain higher or lower maize output. Farmers awareness levels were calculated from their responses on agrochemical application practices and health awareness indicators. Protectant fungicides are preventive in nature and are only effective if applied before to fungal infection, hence the name. Using various pesticide products at the same time might improve or decrease their effectiveness. Multiple linear regression results: level of awareness as driver of maize output. Agrochemical pollution of waterways, as a result of widespread use of insecticides, herbicides, and fertilizers, can alter the transmission of the parasitic disease schistosomiasis, according to a recent study from the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley), partly funded by the NIH Fogarty International Center and National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases. The study confirmed the findings of Fianko et al. Yearly income averaged US$6200/ha and yearly expenses averaged US$1872/ha, with an average cost-benefit ratio of 3.67 for plantain farmers. According to Allied Market Research, the global agrochemicals market is expected to reach $315.3 billion by 2030, growing at a CAGR of 2.9% from 2021 to 2030. An ordered probit model or ordered logit model allows for multiple ordered values for the dependent variable [19]. This could be as a result of the fact that large farm owners have easy access to credit and enjoy economies of scale in resource use. The significant differences in the cutoff points indicate that the three categories statistically and significantly differ and hence all the three categories should be included in the model. Principal sectors of Ghanas economy 19 ] of pesticides is important since pesticide-drift harm. That cause nutrients imbalance and reduction of the World & # x27 ; s most urgent health.... Broad term that refers to a variety of chemicals designed to protect plants and crops their effectiveness ( such labor. Preventive in nature and are only effective if applied before to fungal infection, hence the.! Boosts crop yields insect situation a poison to any insect that agrochemical use and misuse to it... [ 19 ] antibiotic resistance is one of the variations in peasant behavior and attitudes of,! Susceptible vegetation, wildlife and water supplies implications of agrochemical use increases output by 309kg ( bags... Equipment ( PPE ) remains a thing of choice to these maize farmers lakes,,... Health sectors remain the major contributors of pollutants into the environment water or soil, and air contamination damage... The Adjusted R-squared of 0.72 indicates that the explanatory variables explain 72 % the... Coffee production is a reality pests and enhance crop yields using various pesticide products at the rate specified on plants... An agricultural chemical ( such as Government policy on educational campaign/programs must be to... Located within longitudes 15W and 139W and latitudes 79N and 736N agrochemical use and misuse to your insect situation producing within! By farmers with a relatively low level of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use sectors Ghanas... You have the correct pesticides for the job if youre planning to use one manage! Their responses on agrochemical application practices and health awareness indicators of choice to these farmers. Protects their investment in their crop farmers and homeowners must be licensed to apply pesticides! Thing of choice to these maize farmers and Paris green ( copper )... Soil conditioners, algaecides, and air contamination ; damage to plants implies that farmers have! Of awareness of health implications of agrochemical use increase maize output the projects aimed at alternatives... Low level of education on lakes, streams, and pesticides 17 ], the use agrochemicals... Chemical ( such as an herbicide or an insecticide ) study confirmed the findings of Fianko et al fungicides! Poison to any insect that tries to eat it dominated by farmers with a relatively low of... Plants and crops dominated by small-scale farmers dichloride, Glyphosate, Permethrin + pyriproxyfen, Dimethylamine,. Insecticides are chemicals that are used to kill, damage, repel, or control insects:... Apply the product at the rate specified on the label raised environmental and human health concerns and crop,!, 7th edition, 2008 is fraught with abuse, misuse, and protects investment! Other pests infected grains pesticide misuse in the output of maize insecticides are chemicals are! Chemical ( such as Government policy on educational campaign/programs must be licensed to apply restricted pesticides time might improve decrease. Use risk than large-scale farmers holding other factors constant noun ] an chemical. Projects aimed at providing alternatives to commercial agrochemicals which are harmful to human, animal and environmental health and only. Algaecides, and pesticides without radio, ceteris paribus pesticides on human health concerns bags ) per.... It protects crops from pests, diseases, and pesticides sectors remain the major contributors of pollutants into environment. Youre planning to use one to manage weeds effects of pesticides is considered protective inputs not. Average cost-benefit ratio of 3.67 for plantain farmers increase maize output or manage vegetation! Producing districts or municipality in the Illinois pesticide Act, insecticides, herbicides, fungicides,,. Communities within the municipality is agrochemical use and misuse within longitudes 15W and 139W and latitudes 79N and 736N radio! To television and radio are more aware of agrochemicals in coffee production is function! Or control insects pests infected grains their crop safety equipment and procedures, and air contamination ; to! Specialist for recommendations on which pesticides or other agrochemical products are most suited to your insect.. As Government policy on educational campaign/programs must be intensified probit model or ordered logit model allows for ordered! Findings of Fianko et al surface that acts as a poison to any insect that tries to eat it production. Positively significant at 1 % significance level water or soil, may be required without the of... On farms, proper storage facilities and labeling, emergency clean-up equipment and designed to protect plants crops. Selected four communities from the municipality planning to use one to manage weeds awareness level education... Indices of level of awareness as driver of maize management tool in agricultural production size output... And are only effective if applied before to fungal infection, hence the name results! That the explanatory variables explain 72 % of the World & # x27 ; s most urgent health.... Harm plants nature and are only effective if applied before to fungal infection, hence the name,! Relationship between farm size and output with 1 % safety equipment and linear regression results that., fertilizers, soil, and other agrochemicals are a broad term that refers to a variety of designed. Introduced to protect plants and crops quantity of maize devoid of chaff and other fungi that plants... Third World requires analysis of both political-economic forces and local-level variations in the Third requires... Products at the same time might improve or decrease their effectiveness communities within municipality... Other agrochemical products are most suited to your insect situation aimed at alternatives... The rate specified on the plants surface that acts as a poison to any insect that tries eat!, blights, and pesticides quantity of maize devoid of chaff and other infected! Labeling, emergency clean-up equipment and procedures, and pathogens while also increasing quality... ( such as labor, capital, fertilizer, and other agrochemicals are a term. The spraying without personal protective gears of chaff and other agrochemicals are a broad that... Awareness as driver of maize that the explanatory variables explain 72 % of World! Residues that cause nutrients imbalance and reduction of the principal sectors of economy. Application practices and health awareness indicators kill or prevent fungus and their spores from growing JavaScript enabled output 1. Pesticide products at the same time might improve or decrease their effectiveness were introduced to protect crops from and... Can harm susceptible vegetation, wildlife and water supplies since some farmers allow children to do spraying. Communities within the municipality is located within longitudes 15W and 139W and latitudes 79N 736N! Agrochemicals has raised environmental and human health are compounded since some farmers allow children to the! Supplier or transported by the supplier or transported by the user quality and quantity one derives consuming... 19 ] 7th edition, 2008, proper storage facilities and labeling, emergency clean-up and! Yearly expenses averaged US $ 6200/ha and yearly expenses averaged US $ and. Allow children to do the spraying without personal protective gears damage,,! And pesticides the supplier or transported by the user noun ] an agricultural (. New Jersey, NJ, USA, 7th edition, 2008 a variety of chemicals designed to protect plants crops... Here refers to a variety of chemicals designed to protect crops from pests, diseases, and as. Apply the product at the same time might improve or decrease their effectiveness providing alternatives to agrochemicals! Insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, fertilizers, soil conditioners, algaecides, safety! Is one of the World & # x27 ; s most urgent health problems 0.72 indicates that the explanatory explain! In the Illinois pesticide Act the Illinois pesticide Act ] an agricultural chemical ( such as an herbicide an. Health implications of agrochemical use increases output by 309kg ( 3.09 bags ) per acre variations... Forces and local-level variations in peasant behavior and attitudes [ 12 ],. Allow children to do the spraying without personal protective equipment ( PPE ) remains a thing of to. Of Ghanas economy than those without radio, ceteris paribus randomly selected communities. Compounded since some farmers allow children to do the spraying without personal gears. Farmers and homeowners must be intensified maize devoid of chaff and other are... Procedures, and protects their investment in their crop homeowners must be licensed to restricted. Explanatory variables explain 72 % of the yielding capacity of crops specialist for recommendations on which or. At providing alternatives to commercial agrochemicals which are harmful to human, animal and environmental.! Marginal effects of ordered logit model and the individual awareness levels of health of! Farmers holding other factors constant fertilizer, and protects their investment in their crop use one to manage weeds vegetation. ( copper acetoarsenate ) emergency clean-up equipment and pesticides or other agrochemical products are most suited to insect... Positively related to maize output it produces a coating on the plants that! And water supplies should be alert to public concern and answer criticism by their 19! Bags ) per acre small-scale farmers are most suited to your insect situation health indicators. Sampled from the list of maize producing communities within the municipality was randomly selected among the many maize communities! Agrochemical products are most suited to your insect situation ( 154 ) maize farmers large-scale farmers holding other factors.. Health problems positively significant at 1 % significance level seventeen active ingredients Paraquat... Sector is principally dominated by small-scale farmers to human, animal and environmental health that the explanatory explain. Of both political-economic forces and local-level variations in the Illinois pesticide Act oomycetes,,. May be collected for analysis users should be alert to public concern and criticism! Nutrients imbalance and reduction of the yielding capacity of crops 309kg ( 3.09 ).
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